The Co-operative Communication of Human Beings. : Origins of Human Communication.

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Lecture 2. The Co-operative Communication of Human BeingsHuman co-operative gestures emanate from skills and motivations of shared intentionality.Human beings are inordinately co-operative: evolutionary anamolyCommunication: "whites of the eyes" analogy; share info 2.1. Machievellian vs. Vygotskian IntelligenceApe cognition adapted for competitionEarly studies of ape ToM in co-op. paradigm => failureStudies of Hare et al. (2000, 2001) in comp. paradigm => successHare & Tomas competitive Obj Choice (Lecture 1)Apes und. perception, goals, acts (+knowledge, not false beliefs)Human cognition, in addition, adapted for co-operation & cultural lifeShared Intentionality: (i) Skills = shared ('we') goals/intentions, attention/knowledge; (ii) Motivations = helping, sharingCo-operation: apes in Melis et al '06 collaborate; in W&T '06 helpbut no shared goal in Warneken & T in press (videos)but no comm. during collaborative actionsSocial Learning : apes have some skills of social learningbut human imitation, instructed, & normative learning (video)Communication : e.g., pointing gesturehypothesis: co-op comm. key also to collab. & soc. learn. 2.2. Human Pointing FundamentalsBy itself, pointing is nothing!Table 1a examples: if you look over there, you'll know what I want (mindreading)Characterizing gestures: Table 1b examplesThe JA frame: common ground (diff levels a la Clark)no frame = no meaning (although 'crying child' example)different frames = different meanings (ex: bucket as location or as plastic)perspectival , in a sensemust be shared (ex: plastic as fetish) => common groundcan involve absent referents ('missing belt' example)Communicative act: 3 levels of intentions (+ indiv. goals)Social intention (motive, speech act goal):requestive: that you do X [to help me]informative: that you know X [to help you]expressive: that you feel X [so we can share, id w/ one another]also: greeting; gratitude; guilt; & other ¿expressives?referent = my feeling [but no pointing!]Communicative intention : that we know together that I am attempting to communicate - so that you will attend to the referential act and thereby infer my social intention [mutually manifest, public => hidden authorship]co-operative effort that you understand (Clark)Referential intention: that you attend to my referent and to my expression of motive [either may be omitted in familiar context, e.g., dentist]pointing directs other to referent spatiallyexpression of motive by face, voice, bodyIndividual Goals : many layersto pursuade, to insult, to deceive; but also to get/eat apple. 2.3. Model Based on PrimitivesPrimitives of co-op communication:Basic primate perceptual & cognitive skills => worldlogic of intentional/rational action (+ causality) => reasonsPersons: I, You, WePsychological States: (i) do, (ii) want/goal/intend, (iii) see/attend/know, (iv) feelBasic Schema = I want: we know: I want: you do/feel/know XAssumption of Helpfulness: help = I want: [you see:] world = your goalgenerates both relevance inferences and obligationsMost general communicative motives = helping and sharingRequest Action/Info (Get Help): I want: you help meOffer Action/Info (Help): I want: I help youExpress/Share: I want: we do/feel/know XSpecialty Motives: greeting, thanking, apologizingReturn to apes in object choiceHare & T competitive object choice => apes und. goal of reachingAlso: Herrmann & T "Don't!" experiment => und. behavioral prohibitionsNo: (1) joint attentional frame (JAF) for reference(2) und. of ['we'] communicative intention for relevance(3) und. of motive to help by informingSo, not missing und. of intentionality, but shared intentionalityHuman evol.: declarative and informative pointing when shared intentionality (and imperatives become co-operative). 2.4. An Evolutionary Fairy TaleStage 1: Homo: Imitation of tool making: conformity normsalso: analysis of rational action: decision-making (Gergely et al., 2002)quantitative, not qualitative, difference to apesStage 2: Homosapiens: Shared IntentionalityMutualism - indirect reciprocity [reputation] - strong reciprocity [norms]Selection for collaborative activities [many mutualistic]Social-cognitive skills: shared goals, intentions, attentionSocial-cognitive motivationshelping => indirect reciprocity [reputation > gossip] => strong reciprocity [ social norms for helping]sharing: identify w/ others of group, bonding/intimacy, gossipCo-operative CommunicationMaking public desires and knowledge in co-op. communicationrelevance based on assumption of helpfulnessImperative: C advertises request for helpA responds b/c enhances reputation for helpfulnessC thanks b/c enhances reputation as advertising partnerInformative: C advertises own helpfulness (w/r/t providing info.)A accepts help (& thanks in some cases)Expressive/Sharing: C & A bond, identification [gratitude, greeting, etc.]Social norms on helpfulness = public obligationsA cannot ignore invitation to communication [or insane]C&A cannot not help when low cost [or anti-social]Attention-getter to co-op. pointing => JAF (triadic) + comm. intention (we)New motives to help and share => offering, informing, sharingIndiv. imperative to co-op imperative: C & A mutually helpfulInt. movment to co-op. char. gesture: => JAF (triadic) + comm. intention (we)imitation => convention. 2.5. Summary: Human Co-operative CommunicationHumans communicate by publically expressing their thoughts, feelings, desiresAssumes a generally helpful social world [norms]Assumes social world concrnd w/ reputation & group cohsion => gossipShared intentionality infrastructure: (i) Skills = shared ('we') goals/intentions, attention/knowledge; (ii) Motivations = helping, sharingPointing most basic form of co-op comm. [char. gestures for actions & absent refs]Possible foundational role of co-op. comm. in other forms of Shared Int.: collaboration & cultural learning (esp. instructed and normative learning). Some ReferencesHare, B., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2001). Do chimpanzees know what conspecifics know? Animal Behavior, 61, 139 - 151Hare, B., Call, J., Agnetta, B., & Tomasello, M. (2000). Chimpanzees know what conspecifics do and do not see. Animal Behaviour, 59, 771-785..Hare, B., & Tomasello, M. (2005). Human-like social skills in dogs? Trends in Cognitive Science, 9, 439-444.Melis, A., Hare, B., & Tomasello, M. (2006). Chimpanzees recruit the best collaborators. Science, 31 ,1297 - 1300.Tomasello, M. (1999). The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition. Harvard University PressTomasello, M., Call, J., & Hare, B. (2003). Chimpanzees understand psychological states: The question is which ones and to what extent. Trends in Cognitive Science, 7, 153-156Tomasello, M., Carpenter, M., & Liszkowski, U. (submitted). A new look at infant pointing.Tomasello, M., Carpenter, M., Call, J., Behne, T., & Moll, H. (2005). Understanding and sharing intentions: The origins of cultural cognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 675 - 691.Tomasello, M., Kruger, A., & Ratner, H. (1993). Cultural learning. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 16, 495-552.Warneken, F., Chen. F., & Tomasello, M. (in press). Cooperative activities in young children and chimpanzees. Child Development.Wyman, E. & Tomasello, M. (in press). The ontogenetic origins of human cooperation. In L. Barrett & R. Dunbar, Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology.Warneken, F. & Tomasello, M. (2006). Altruistic helping in human infants and young chimpanzees. Science, 31 ,1301 - 1303.