Before Written Oaths (kishōmon): Oaths (sensei) in Ancient Japan. Medieval Worlds|Oaths in Premodern Japan and Premodern Europe - Volume 19. 2023 medieval worlds Volume 19. 2023|

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In medieval and early modern Japan, a style of written oath, called kishōmon, came into existence. Recent archaeological excavations have made it possible to prove that the kishōmon appeared in the twelfth century at the latest. This article recounts the process through which these sources originated and developed into the kishōmon format. Divinatory curses, called ukei, existed in Ancient Japan (already in the third to sixth century CE), and they provided the basis for requesting divine judgment or swearing oaths. During the seventh through eleventh centuries, the Japanese state consolidated its authority and a new type of political oath came into being. Initially, these oaths resembled those employed in China, although oaths in this format may also have been used in Japan for diplomacy. Next, oaths influenced by Buddhist prayers came to the fore whereby the oath-taker cursed himself if his statements were untrue. Finally, Buddhist oaths became prominent, in which other persons than the oath-taker were cursed as well. After the ninth century, the Chinese-style political culture withered within Japan, and only Buddhist oaths remained. Although oaths cursing others would remain, the self-curse would become the foundation for standard contracts in later times. As medieval society emerged in Japan, and predicated upon these customs and beliefs, the kishōmon came into being.